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  Second, the Kathasaritsagara also has the Mitrasharma story, about the brahmana who bought a goat. Except that the brahmana does not have a name here. And there are several rogues who come and ask him why he is carrying a dog on his shoulders. First, one rogue turns up. Next, two rogues turn up together. Finally, when the brahmana throws the goat away, three rogues ask him simultaneously. When the brahmana is asked why he is carrying a dog on his shoulders, there is the following additional component. ‘Oh, we understand why you have got a dog on your shoulders. You must be a hunter and want to use the dog in your hunting pursuits.’

  Third, there is a story about a stupid Buddhist monk. He lived in a monastery and when he was wandering around the streets, he was bitten by a dog on his thigh. When he returned to the monastery, the monk thought, ‘One by one, everyone will ask me what has happened to me on my thigh. It will take me a long time if I have to individually explain to different people. I must find a way so that everyone gets to know at the same time.’ Having decided this, the monk began to ring the bell in the monastery and all the other monks came running. ‘Why are you ringing the bell without reason?’ asked the other monks. ‘There is a reason,’ replied the stupid monk. And he explained his rationale. The other monks laughed their heads off at the stupid monk’s folly. What a commotion had he created over a trivial matter!

  The Panchatantra, the Hitopadesha and the Kathasaritsagara were influenced by the Jataka stories. There are roughly 550 Jataka stories, although the exact number is a function of how one does the counting. If one reads these Jataka stories, one finds that dogs were not regarded that badly. Indeed, the Bodhisattva was born as a dog in one birth, compared to eighteen births as a monkey, eleven births as a deer, ten births as a lion, six births as an elephant, five births as a crow, five births as a vulture, four births as a horse, four births as a cow, four births as a snake, three births as a lizard, two births as a fish, two births as a mouse, two births as a jackal, two births as a pig and an assorted number of births as various birds. This is perhaps understandable, as Buddhism also represented a rejection of caste Hinduism and, as was argued earlier, the downgrading of dogs was due to the ascendancy of caste Hinduism.

  In Kukkura Jataka (no. 2), the Bodhisattva is actually born as a dog. Here is the story.

  When king Brahmadatta ruled in Varanasi, the Bodhisattva was born as a dog. He lived in a cremation ground, leader of a pack of many hundred dogs. One day, king Brahmadatta went out for a ride in his chariot. When he returned to his palace, the leather harness was left attached to the chariot and was not taken off. During the night, it rained and this made the harness wet. The king had some dogs in the palace. These were bred dogs, unlike the stray dogs in the cremation ground, or elsewhere in the city. These royal dogs gnawed at the harness, which was now wet, and completely destroyed it. In the morning, it was obvious that the harness and attached straps had been destroyed by dogs and it was presumed that stray dogs must have got in through the sewer. King Brahmadatta decreed that all dogs must be slaughtered. When this began to happen, the remaining dogs rushed to the Bodhisattva and told him what was happening. The Bodhisattva knew that stray dogs could not have got into the palace. This must therefore have been the work of the royal dogs.

  But to prove this, he had to meet the king and this was not easy. However, the Bodhisattva did manage to get there and asked for justice. He told the king that there was no proof that stray dogs had destroyed the harness. And if all dogs were to be destroyed, why were the royal ones being spared? The Bodhisattva promised that he would prove that the royal dogs were the culprits.

  This was done by mixing buttermilk and kusa grass. When this mixture was fed to the royal dogs, they vomited. And bits of leather came out with the vomit. King Brahmadatta decreed that all dogs, including stray ones, should be provided good quality food.

  Dogs, in and around palaces, are encountered in other Jatakas also. Abhinha Jataka (no. 27) is an example. This is a loyalty story.

  When Brahmadatta ruled in Varanasi, the Bodhisattva was his minister. There was a royal elephant, and a dog was friendly with this elephant. The dog would go to visit the elephant and eat little bits of rice that the elephant left after he had been fed. The dog and the elephant became so friendly that they would not eat without each other. The dog would freely swing from the elephant’s trunk. Unfortunately, a villager paid the royal mahout some money and bought the dog from him. Without the dog around, the elephant refused to eat or drink. Or even have a bath. The Bodhisattva deduced what was wrong. A proclamation was issued, asking for the whereabouts of the dog. The man who had bought the dog got to know about the proclamation and promptly released the dog, which immediately dashed back to the elephant’s stall. The elephant picked up the dog with his trunk and wept with joy. It was only after the dog had eaten that the elephant ate. A lay disciple who was present when this story was being told was the dog of the story in a previous birth.

  A dog is also a main protagonist in Sunakha Jataka (no. 242). When king Brahmadatta ruled in Varanasi, the Bodhisattva was born into a wealthy household in the kingdom of Kashi. A citizen of Varanasi possessed a dog and this dog had become fat, having been fed on rice. A villager came to visit Varanasi, saw the dog and desired to possess it. He gave the master a piece of cloth and some money for the dog and took the dog away. The villager now led the dog away on a leash and ventured towards the forest. On the outskirts of the forest, there was a hut. Tying the dog up in the hut, the villager went to sleep. Meanwhile, the Bodhisattva had come to the forest and advised the dog to gnaw through its leash and strap. This is exactly what the dog did and dashed back to his master in Varanasi.

  In Maha Kanha Jataka (no. 469), a dog plays a major role. Evil had descended on earth and the religion taught by the Buddha went into decay. The Sakka (Shakra or Indra, king of the gods) decided that humankind needed to be frightened so that they would come back to religion. Accordingly, Sakka made his charioteer Matali assume the form of a huge black dog that was pure-bred. The dog was hideous to look at and had four tusks as big as plantains. Sakka assumed the form of a forester, with a bow and spears. He also fastened a collar and a leash on the dog and led it into the city. King Usinara, who ruled over the city, tried to prevent their entry. But Sakka and the dog managed to get in. People were frightened and ran into their houses, so large was this big black dog. As for the dog, it chased whoever it could see. The king and his queens also hid. And the dog howled at the window of the palace. Summoning up some courage, the king asked the forester, ‘Why does your hound howl?’ Sakka explained the dog wanted some food. Food was provided from the royal household, but nothing was enough. It ate up all the food in the palace. It ate up the royal horses and elephants. It ate up all the food in the city. Sakka said that his dog would also eat up all his enemies and his enemies were those who were evil. If there was no evil, the earth and the city and everything else would be safe from his dog. Having thus established the triumph of religion, Sakka and Matali disappeared.

  A dog also plays a major role in Mahabodhi Jataka (no. 528). When king Brahmadatta ruled in Varanasi, the Bodhisattva was born as a brahmana in the kingdom of Kashi and was named Bodhi. He became an ascetic and a mendicant and was persuaded by king Brahmadatta to live in Varanasi, near the king’s palace. Bodhi also became friendly with a royal dog, brown in colour and a great favourite of the king’s. Later on, there was a plot to assassinate Bodhi, and king Brahmadatta was also a party to this plotting. However, Bodhi was warned by the dog.

  There is a story of friendship between a dog and a goat in Maha Ummagga Jataka (no. 546) that has an Aesopian kind of flavour. Royal elephants were fed grass, and a goat was in the habit of frequenting the elephant-stalls so that it could also have some grass. The elephant-keepers beat the goat and drove it away. One of the keepers hit the goat on the back with a stick so that it was humped in pain. The goat went and lay down on a bench near the wall of the royal palace. There was also a dog that was used to feeding on
scraps of bones and skin from the royal palace. But that day, the dog was hungry and could not wait. As soon as the royal cook had cooked the dainty dishes of meat and fish, the dog crept into the kitchen, uncovered the food and began to eat. In the process, the covers on the dishes fell off and the noise attracted the cook. The cook beat up the dog with sticks and stones. While the yelping dog was running away, the cook beat it on the back with a stick and the dog was also now humped up in pain. And because a leg had been hurt with the stick, the dog was also limping. The dog met the goat and they told each other about the humps on their respective backs. There was no way the dog was ever going to be allowed near the royal kitchen and there was no way the goat was ever going to be allowed near the royal stables. So they befriended each other and hatched a plan. The dog visited the royal stables and stole grass for the goat. And the goat visited the royal kitchen and stole meat and fish for the dog. Thus they lived happily ever after.

  There are fairly well-known dog stories, such as the story of the dog and its shadow. But in the Jatakas, the dog has been replaced by something else. For example, we have the counterpart of the dog and its shadow in Culladhanuggaha Jataka (no. 374), but the dog has been replaced by a jackal. Similarly, the story of the fox, the cock and the dog also occurs in Kukkuta Jataka (no. 383). Except that there is no dog, and the fox has been replaced by a she-cat. In some Jataka stories, dogs get side mentions. They are often mentioned in the context of hunting, meaning, dogs were used for hunting. Godha Jataka (no. 141) is an example. As is Bhallatiya Jataka (no. 504), where there is a reference to royal pedigreed dogs used for hunting. Well-bred royal dogs also find a mention in Maha Sutasoma Jataka (no. 537). In some of these, there are certainly negative connotations. For instance, in Losaka Jataka (no.41), there is reference to an evil man who was reborn as a dog for five hundred lives. And this dog never had enough to eat. Mahanaradakassapa Jataka (no. 544) even mentions Shyama and Shabala, in the process of transition from an intermediate hell to a final one. ‘Two dogs Sabala and Sama of giant size, mighty and strong, devour with their iron teeth him who is driven hence and goes to another world.’3

  But in general, the Jatakas do not have negative associations with reference to dogs and this confirms the hypothesis that the negative association was a brahmana phenomenon rather than a general one. Indeed, Sudhabhojana Jataka (no. 535) makes this absolutely clear. As a sub-plot, this has an incident where five brahmanas sit down to eat. And Panchasikha, who is actually Matali’s son reborn, assumes the form of a dog and urinates on their food. The brahmanas cover up their food. But a drop of the urine happens to fall on Kosiya’s hand. (Kosiya was the royal treasurer and was also present at the time of the eating.) Thereafter, the brahmanas only pretend to eat their food and when Kosiya asks for some water from the brahmanas so that he can wash his hands and, in return, offers them some of his food, the brahmanas refuse. Kosiya now goes to the river to fetch some water on his own and the dog urinates on his pot. Kosiya threatens the dog with a stick and the dog changes into a horse. The dog has no further role to play in the story, which is actually about Kosiya rather than the brahmanas. But it seems fairly obvious that brahmanas did not like dogs, and this was more than a matter of the dog urinating.

  As Siddhartha, the Buddha himself is supposed to have travelled across India with a little dog at his side. One day, robbers attacked Siddhartha and tried to rob and kill him. Immediately, the dog transformed itself into a lion that scared away the robbers. After the robbers fled, the lion again became a little dog and Siddhartha blessed the dog for his loyalty and faithfulness. There is also the tradition of the Kshitigarbha Bodhisattva, who in Chinese stories, was attached deeply to his mother. When his mother died, he hastened to hell to find her, but discovered that she had already been reborn as a bitch. On returning to earth, Kshitigarbha found out where his mother was and, thereafter, she was his constant companion. The Chinese Fu (or Foo or Fo) dogs in bronze or ceramics that guard temples are also evolutions of the lions that support the Buddha Sakyamuni’s throne. In Tibet, the superiority of dogs is determined in accordance with how close a resemblance the specific species bears to the dogs that accompanied the Buddha. The Pekinese dog was valuable because it supposedly resembled the Buddha’s lions cum dogs. In Tibet, it is believed that these dogs which resembled lions were actually rakshasas and regained their terrible nature when it was necessary to protect the Buddha or dharma. Sometimes, it is also believed that dogs are actually monks who have yielded to temptation. Therefore, dogs are taken care of by monasteries.

  This is the right place to mention Asanga and Kukuripa. Asanga (300–370 CE) was a brahmana from Peshawar, who gave up rituals and adopted Buddhism. Through his meditations, Asanga wanted to directly meet the future Buddha, Maitreya. Despite twelve years of meditation, there was no success. One day, on leaving his cave, Asanga ran into a poor dog on the road. The dog was ill and almost dying, part of its body was covered with maggots. In his compassion, Asanga wanted to do something for the dog. But he dared not remove the maggots with his hands, because the maggots might be injured. Therefore, Asanga began to lick the maggots off the dog’s body with his tongue. Immediately, the dog disappeared and Maitreya appeared before Asanga. Maitreya explained that he had always been with Asanga, but Asanga’s compassion needed to be aroused sufficiently for him to be able to see Maitreya. ‘Pick me up and let’s go for a walk to the nearby village,’ said Maitreya. No one in the village noticed anything unusual except an old woman, who said, ‘What are you doing with that sick dog on your shoulder?’

  Kukuraja or Kukuripa (around 1000 CE) was a Buddhist of brahmana origins. He meditated in a cave with a dog for a companion and was known as the dog yogi. He meditated in a place known as Pullahari in west Magadha and his cave was on an island that was also supposed to be surrounded by dogs. As the story goes, the dog that was his companion in the cave was actually a dakini, who had descended from heaven to keep Kukuripa company. As soon as Kukuripa scratched the dog behind the ear, the dog was replaced by the dakini.

  The Shiva–Shakti and Buddhist influences greatly neutralized whatever Manu and other such samhitas may have had to say on dogs.

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  Popular Tales

  When the brahmana influence was less, the dog survived, even if did not quite become an equal companion cum friend before the advent of western cum British influence. This is noticeable in the rehabilitation of Shiva and the identification of Bhairava with the tribal god Bhairon. It is also evident in folklore. For instance, tribal myths of Tripura say that once upon a time, in the remote past, men and dogs could see the gods. But gods smeared black soot on human eyes, so that humans are no longer able to see gods. However, dogs can see the gods even today. In the eastern part of Madhya Pradesh, adjoining Chhattisgarh, and not very far from Jabalpur, there is a place known as Dindori. Just outside Dindori town is Kukkura Math (dog temple), probably India’s only temple dedicated to dogs. The theme of a faithful dog being killed recurs in Kukkura Math’s legend. Kukkura Math is also known as Rina Mukteshvara Mandir, a temple where one was freed from one’s debt and this temple was built in the tenth century of the Northern Kalachuri dynasty. In the course of travelling throughout India, Shankaracharya (eighth to ninth century) was freed from his debts to his preceptor here and others are also freed from their debts here. Hence the temple’s name of Rina Mukteshvara. However, the more interesting debt story concerns a dog. A banjara tradesman, Lakhirama, used to own a dog. He was in need of money and borrowed some from the local king, Kokadeva, leaving his dog with the king as collateral. One night, there was a theft in the palace. The dog witnessed this and in the morning, tugged at the king’s clothes and dragged him towards a nearby pond. When the pond was dredged, the stolen goods were found. The king was delighted. He wrote a chit to the Lakhirama, telling him that he was so delighted that he had freed the banjara from his debt. This chit was tied to the dog’s neck and the dog was sent off to his master. Meanwhile, Lakhirama was heade
d towards the king, with money to pay off the debt. The dog and the master met mid-way. But Lakhirama was furious because he thought that the dog had run away from the king. He killed the dog and only then did he discover the chit around the neck. Lakhirama erected a tomb in the dog’s memory and prayed to Shankara so that he might be freed from his sins. Rina Mukteshvara Mandir is so named because of the banjara’s debt to the king, and to the dog. The temple to Shankara exists there and so does the dog’s tomb, about a hundred metres from the temple.

  There are sthala puranas or sthala mahatmyas associated with different tirthas or places of pilgrimage.1 Chetru Thamarai Tirtham2 is an example. A pious king got lost in the forest and was hungry and thirsty. In the forest, he came upon some food spread out on a leaf. Nearby, there was water in a kamandalu. The king rightly guessed that this food and drink must belong to some sage, and that he should not touch it. But he was too hungry and thirsty. No sooner was the food and water consumed, than the sage Kusasana turned up. Kusasana was the son of sage Kalava and was furious that food and water meant for Vishnu had thus been finished. The king was therefore cursed that he would become a dog and would regain his human form only when he arrived at a really sacred tirtha. After wandering around for several years, the king finally regained his human form in Chetru Tamarai Tirtham. In Jodhpur, there is a temple known as Ratanada. This was established by a teacher named Radidas, but was named after a dog known as Rata. In Kanauj, the place known as Anahilavada is supposed to have been named not exactly after a dog but after the incident of a dog having chased a hare. In several places in Karnataka, there are what are called hero-stones, paintings on stone depicting the exploit of some hero or the other. In these, dogs are fairly frequent occurrences.